Spotting Misinformation and Disinformation

Misinformation and disinformation both involve false or misleading information. The key difference is the intention behind creating or sharing it.

You may not be able to establish someone’s intention from the content alone. Focus first on checking the claim and its supporting evidence before relying on it or sharing it.

These types of misleading content frequently appear online:

• False Connection: Headlines or images don't match the actual content
• Misleading Content: Selective use of facts to frame an issue deceptively
• Manipulated Content: Authentic information or images deliberately altered to deceive
• Fabricated Content: Entirely invented stories or visuals designed to deceive
• Imposter Content: Genuine sources are impersonated to spread false information
• False Context: Genuine material presented in a misleading context, such as an old photograph described as showing a recent event

Motivations vary widely, including:

• Political or ideological influence
• Financial gain (e.g. clickbait)
• Satire or humour: a joke or satirical story may be mistaken for factual information when shared without its original context
• Genuine confusion or misunderstanding

False or misleading claims can appear in material used for academic work, including journal articles, reports, websites and technical tutorials.

Examples include:

• Presenting a study’s findings as applying to a wider population than it examined

• Claiming that research proves something its evidence does not establish

• Presenting old figures or guidance as current

• Citing a source that does not support the claim, or a reference that does not exist

An older source or an industry-funded report is not automatically unreliable. Examine the specific claim, its supporting evidence and any relevant limitations.

For the wider process of deciding whether and how to use a source, see How to Evaluate Information Effectively.

Before relying on or sharing a claim:

1. Identify what needs checking. What exactly is being claimed? Separate factual claims from opinions, predictions and interpretations.

2. Trace it to the original source. Find the underlying study, report, data or full quotation. Check whether it supports the claim being made.

3. Check the context. Look at the date, location and circumstances. Has important information been omitted? For images or videos, investigate their original source and whether the caption accurately describes them.

4. Look for independent evidence. Compare appropriate sources that have investigated the claim. Several websites repeating the same report do not provide independent confirmation.

5. Decide what the evidence supports. If an important claim remains unverified, do not present it as established fact. Seek better evidence or ask your tutor or supervisor for guidance.

An unfamiliar source or an emotional headline is a reason to investigate, rather than proof that a claim is false.

For a structured checking approach, see Frameworks for evaluating information. If sources disagree, see Dealing with conflicting information for help comparing their evidence.

These sites can help you check whether claims you've seen online are reliable. They're especially useful for social media content, current events, and trending topics.

Read the explanation and supporting evidence behind a fact check, rather than relying only on its verdict. Check that it addresses the same claim and context as the information you are evaluating. If you cannot find a fact check, do not assume the claim is true. Use the checking steps above to investigate it.

Finding a problem with a source gives you an opportunity to review your work. Start by checking whether the concern affects the particular claim you have used.

• Before submitting: Check the original evidence and identify any affected claims. Correct, qualify or remove them as appropriate. If you replace a source, check that the replacement supports your argument and update your citations and reference list.

• After submitting: Contact your module tutor to explain your concern and ask what to do next.

• If you have shared the claim with others: Where possible, correct it where you originally shared it and provide the supporting evidence.

Keep a brief note of what you checked and what you changed. This can help you explain your decision and improve your future research.

Explore these related guides for more help with source evaluation:

• How to Evaluate Information Effectively – Learn structured approaches to critically assess the reliability of sources
• Recognising and Addressing Bias – Identify how bias affects what you read and how you interpret it
• Evaluating AI outputs– Understand the risks of AI-generated misinformation and how to assess it
• Academic vs Non-Academic Sources – Compare source types and their appropriate use in university-level work