Reporting verbs

Ask what the author, researcher or organisation is doing at this point in the source. The following groups can help you choose.

These groups overlap. A verb may work differently in another sentence, and specialised verbs may be used in your subject. Check the source, the evidence and the context before you choose.

Reporting verbs are not interchangeable. They can suggest different levels of certainty, commitment or distance. Compare:

Ahmed (2024) states that...

Ahmed (2024) suggests that...

Ahmed (2024) argues that...

Ahmed (2024) claims that...

Suggests can communicate caution. Claims can create distance or doubt, so do not use it as a neutral substitute for states. Demonstrates is strong because it implies that the evidence establishes the point; proves is stronger still and is rarely justified in academic writing.

There is no fixed scale that makes one verb neutral and another evaluative in every context. Use the evidence, sentence and disciplinary context to judge the effect. Accuracy is more important than varying verbs to avoid repetition.

A study can do several things. Use the verb that describes the particular part you are discussing. These are constructed examples with placeholder citation details:

Ahmed (2024) examined differences in student study patterns.

Examined describes what the researcher did.

Ahmed (2024) found that students used several different approaches.

Found reports a result.

Ahmed (2024) concludes that flexibility is important when planning study support.

Concludes introduces an interpretation drawn from the study. It is not interchangeable with found.

Ahmed (2024) argues that universities should provide more flexible study support.

Argues introduces a broader position or recommendation.

Making these distinctions helps you represent sources fairly and tells the reader whether you are discussing a method, result, interpretation or argument.

Reporting verbs are especially useful when you name an author, researcher or organisation in your sentence:

Ahmed (2024) argues that...

This is author-prominent because the sentence foregrounds the author. In an author-date referencing style, it is also a narrative citation because the author's name forms part of the sentence. Author-prominent and narrative describe related but different features.

You can also use reporting verbs to compare or connect sources:

Ahmed (2024) argues that... In contrast, Chen (2025) suggests that...

The reporting verbs and connecting phrase show a relationship, but your explanation still needs to show why the relationship matters.

In OSCOLA, citation details normally appear in a footnote. You can still foreground a named author, court or other authority and use an appropriate reporting verb. Follow your required style for the citation format. See the Referencing guide for access to Cite Them Right Online.

See Integrating information from sources for more guidance on bringing evidence and different sources into your argument, and Citing for the distinction between narrative and parenthetical citation.

Different reporting verbs use different grammatical patterns. For example:

Ahmed (2024) argues that the policy should change.

Ahmed (2024) examines the relationship between the two factors.

Ahmed (2024) reports on changes in student behaviour.

Check subject-verb agreement too: one author argues, while two authors argue. If you are unsure how a verb is normally used, check a reliable dictionary or examples in academic writing from your subject.

Reporting verbs can appear in the present or past tense. The appropriate tense depends on what you are discussing, the surrounding sentence and the conventions of your subject.

The past tense may be appropriate when you describe what researchers did in a completed study:

Ahmed (2024) examined responses from 200 participants.

The present tense is often used when you discuss an argument or position as part of the current academic discussion:

Ahmed (2024) argues that...

A paragraph may therefore use both tenses for different purposes. Present tense does not automatically make research more current or important. Follow the conventions of your subject and use tense consistently when the function is the same.

When reviewing your work, ask yourself:

• Does the verb accurately represent what the source says, does, finds or concludes?
• Have I distinguished between a method, finding, conclusion and argument?
• Does the verb imply more certainty, strength or distance than the source supports?
• Does the grammar and tense work in this sentence?
• Have I varied verbs only where the change improves accuracy or meaning?
• Is my own position and reasoning clear alongside the sources?
• Have I cited the source correctly?